The Mississippi River is America’s “mother river,” the geopolitical heart of the United States, the crucial foundation for America’s early economic rise, and the geographic basis for its long-term prosperity and livability. Faced with severe pollution and disasters in the river basin, as well as conflicts of interest among various groups, the United States has adopted a strategy of addressing issues at their source and pursuing long-term development. It places great emphasis on the unified management of natural resources, has implemented numerous effective reform measures, and has continuously enacted and amended laws to provide robust legal safeguards. These approaches are worthy of our consideration and emulation as we embark on large-scale river basin governance efforts today.

The Mississippi River is the longest river system and has the largest drainage basin in North America. It boasts significant advantages in energy resources and is one of the United States’ most important grain-producing regions and industrial hubs, playing a pivotal role in the country’s economy. Like many other rivers around the world, the Mississippi River basin has also gone through a phase of ecological degradation caused by overexploitation. After more than a century of comprehensive management and restoration efforts, the Mississippi River—once ranked among the ten most endangered rivers in the U.S.—now boasts crystal-clear, transparent waters. It has largely become an artificially controlled corridor for water and sediment transport as well as a major navigational artery, serving as a treasure trove of national culture and recreational opportunities for Americans. A series of effective practices employed in its management offer valuable lessons that could be借鉴ed by China’s large river basins.

Overview of Watershed Resources

The Mississippi River is the world’s fourth-longest river. Its drainage basin covers 3.22 million square kilometers, spanning 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, accounting for more than one-third of the total land area of the United States. In 2017, the Mississippi River basin contributed 27.5% of the U.S. GDP and was home to 29.4% of the nation’s total population.

The Mississippi River boasts abundant and diverse energy and mineral resources. The states of Kentucky, West Virginia, Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana, located in the middle and upper reaches of the river, are rich in coal reserves. Downstream, Louisiana is one of the three major oil-producing regions in the United States. The river basin’s installed hydropower capacity reaches 19.5 million kilowatts, with a hydropower resource utilization rate of 70%. The states of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas, situated in the middle and upper reaches of the Mississippi River basin, are home to some of the largest lead-zinc mining areas in the U.S. It is here that the globally widespread “Mississippi Valley-type” (commonly referred to as “MVT”) lead-zinc deposits were first identified and named. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Tennessee are also important sources of nonferrous metals in the United States. High-grade iron ore resources found in states such as Kentucky and Illinois have fostered the development of numerous steel-industry cities, notably Pittsburgh.

The region boasts exceptionally favorable agricultural resources. The basin is home to approximately 1.2 million square kilometers of black soil, one of the world’s three major black soil regions, and serves as the largest production area for U.S. wheat, corn, soybeans, and cotton. The United States’ status as one of the world’s leading producers of crops as well as livestock products such as meat, eggs, and dairy largely stems from the basin’s uniquely advantageous agricultural resources in the Mississippi River watershed.

The industrial layout is vast in scale. After more than 200 years of development and construction, the Mississippi River basin has evolved into one of the most important industrial clusters in the United States, encompassing industries such as food, steel, power, machinery, and automobiles. Moreover, it has given rise to regionally distinctive industrial layouts across the 10 states along the riverbank.

Shipping resources are convenient and efficient. Starting in the 1920s, a network of inland waterways was established, connecting rivers, streams, lakes, and seas with uniformly standardized water depths, making it the major artery of U.S. inland navigation. Today, the navigable mileage totals approximately 20,000 kilometers. The annual cargo volume remains stable at 500 to 600 million tons, accounting for roughly 60% of the nation’s total inland shipping.

Previously existing issues

Like many other rivers around the world, the Mississippi River basin has also gone through a stage of ecological degradation caused by overexploitation. This is mainly reflected in the following aspects.

First, water quality has been steadily deteriorating, with severe eutrophication. Excessive amounts of pesticides, fertilizers, animal waste, industrial wastewater, and municipal sewage discharged into the Mississippi River by states within its basin have led to a serious decline in water quality. Meanwhile, the large-scale construction of hydraulic engineering projects has directly affected the river’s flow and distribution, disrupting the adsorption and desorption of nutrients and toxic substances in both water and sediments, thereby reducing the water body’s self-purification capacity. By the late 20th century, the water quality issue in the Mississippi River had become extremely serious.

Second, wetlands are disappearing rapidly, and river systems are being severely damaged. The ongoing loss of delta wetlands is the Mississippi River’s second-largest ecological issue. From the 1930s to the 1990s, an area of 3,950 square kilometers has already been lost. The primary causes of wetland loss include changes in delta sedimentation cycles, relative sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, land subsidence, frequent severe winter storms and hurricanes, damage to wetlands caused by rodent herbivores, and the use of tracked vehicles.

Third, sediment deposition is uneven: there is excessive sediment in the upper reaches but insufficient sediment in the middle and lower reaches. Sediment continuously flows into the upper Mississippi River basin from mountainous farmlands, residential areas, commercial districts, and highway construction sites, resulting in excessive sediment accumulation in the reservoir backwater zones and wetlands upstream. Meanwhile, the middle and lower reaches suffer from an inadequate supply of sediment, causing the riverbed to sink and the delta area to shrink steadily.

Fourth, flood disasters occur frequently, and protective early-warning efforts are inadequate. Over the past century and more, the Mississippi River has experienced 36 major floods, with particularly severe damage caused by hurricane-induced storm surges.

Fifth, unreasonable engineering construction has severely impacted the survival of biological species. In September 2010, a serious ecological disaster occurred in waters off Louisiana near the Gulf of Mexico—the worst such incident in U.S. history. According to available evidence, the oil spill from BP’s offshore drilling platform was the cause of the massive die-off of fish in that region.

Sixth, management policies are difficult to unify, and basin planning lacks coordination.

Governance experiences worth learning from

1. A continuously improving legal system

A sound legal system is the cornerstone of successful governance. As early as 1820, the U.S. Congress began discussing legislation to develop inland waterways. Subsequently, numerous laws and regulations were enacted, providing a legal framework for the construction and management of water resources, hydraulic engineering, hydropower projects, and water transportation systems, thereby ensuring that inland waterway development proceeds in an orderly manner.

First is the Flood Control Act. The repeated occurrence of severe floods prompted Congress to affirm that the nation should assume a leading role in flood-control policy. Among these, the Flood Control Act of 1936 was the first comprehensive flood-control legislation passed by Congress, and it has undergone numerous revisions over the years. In particular, the Flood Control Act of 1965 marked the beginning of a flood-control policy that combines engineering and non-engineering measures.

Second, the Water Resources Act. In the 1960s, the United States enacted the Water Resources Planning Act. In 1972, the Clean Water Act was promulgated, and through the implementation of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program, a discharge permitting system based on best available technology emission standards was established. By constructing wastewater treatment plants and implementing the discharge permitting system, the biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater was effectively reduced, thereby promoting improvements in water quality within river basins. In 1986, the United States enacted the Water Resources Development Act.

Third is shipping legislation. The “Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century,” passed by Congress in 1998, continues to place great emphasis on the development of inland waterway transportation and also addresses the ongoing development and management of the Mississippi River. These measures have played a critically important role in the development of navigation along the Mississippi River system.

Fourth is the Insurance Act. The federal government has enacted several flood insurance regulations, including the 1933 River Basin Authority Act, the 1956 Federal Flood Insurance Act, the 1968 National Flood Insurance Act, the 1973 Flood Disaster Protection Act, and the 1977 Flood Insurance Program Amendments. These acts are not limited to the Mississippi River basin alone; they also cover flood insurance for other river basins such as the Tennessee, Ohio, Arkansas, Red, and White Rivers.

2. Smooth and effective management measures

Smooth and effective management measures are fundamental to successful governance.

First, a centralized and unified flood-control management agency was established. In 1879, the U.S. Congress created the Mississippi River Commission, which, through comprehensive planning and renovation, ultimately developed an inland waterway network that connects rivers, streams, lakes, and seas, with uniformly standardized water depths. The entire water system has evolved into an integrated resource management system encompassing navigation, flood control, power generation, water supply, irrigation, recreation, and environmental protection. The Flood Control Act enacted in 1928 stipulated that the Corps of Engineers (COE) under the Department of the Army would be responsible for nationwide flood control and waterway improvement management. In 1997, the Eutrophication Task Force was established, bringing together representatives from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of the Interior, the Department of Commerce, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the environmental and agricultural agencies of 12 states. Additionally, other relevant coordinating bodies include the Upper Mississippi River Basin Association and the Lower Mississippi River Conservation Committee.

Second, the federal watershed management policy was formulated. In the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency gradually recognized that a water environmental management model based on watersheds as fundamental units was highly effective. Consequently, it began coordinating the efforts of various stakeholders within watersheds to address the most pressing environmental issues. In 1996, the EPA issued the "Framework for Watershed Protection," which promotes cross-disciplinary and cross-sectoral collaboration to enhance cooperation among communities and between watersheds in tackling water pollution. During the implementation of this framework, by integrating permit issuance and management for pollutant discharges, protection of water sources, and prioritization of projects eligible for financial funding, the agency significantly improved its management effectiveness.

Third, a special national action plan was formulated. In 2001, the Eutrophication Working Group released the 2001 Action Plan, setting a target to reduce the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico to below 5,000 square kilometers by 2015. In 2015, the 2015 target of the 2001 Action Plan was further postponed to 2035, and an interim target was established to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus loads by 20% by 2025 (using the average load from 1980 to 1996 as the baseline).

Fourth, funds are raised through multiple channels. The federal government and local governments jointly share the associated costs. The Water Resources Development Act passed by Congress in 1986 stipulates that state governments bear between 25% and 50% of the costs. Costs for excavating soil for dike construction or for reclaiming land previously occupied by dikes are to be covered by local governments; the federal government does not provide funding for these expenses. The management and maintenance costs of flood-control levees are covered by local governments through their tax revenues and levies on flood-control fees.

Fifth, implement flood insurance. Flood insurance measures represent one of the key non-engineering approaches adopted by the United States. In 1968, Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Program, which was based on two fundamental principles: First, encouraging state and local governments to avoid locating future economic development zones in flood-prone areas, shifting from a strategy of “resisting floods” to one of “making way for floods”; second, enabling the public to obtain affordable insurance coverage. In 1973, legislation was further enacted to transform voluntary insurance into mandatory insurance. The federal flood insurance policies are issued by the Federal Emergency Management Agency, but the sale of these policies, underwriting, claims processing, and other related activities are all managed by private insurance companies. By the 1980s, there were a total of 30,000 insurance companies selling 1.9 million policies, with total insured amounts exceeding 110 billion U.S. dollars.

Sixth, we place great importance on scientific experimentation. The U.S. government attaches great significance to scientific experimentation in governance and continuously explores new approaches in practical applications. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has a well-established research team and advanced experimental facilities; all major engineering projects must undergo model testing. The Waterways Experiment Station, located in Vicksburg, boasts the world’s largest inland-waterway model—the comprehensive model of the Mississippi River basin—covering an area of 4,000 square kilometers. This model is used to simulate and study flood-control strategies and river-channel planning. The model can replicate historical major floods, forecast potentially even larger floods, optimize the crest elevations of flood-control levees, and determine basin-wide flood-control strategies. At the same time, in the planning and design of various engineering projects, we emphasize the integration of the latest scientific and technological achievements into practical governance efforts, thereby maximizing the optimization of development plans.

3. Well-designed and fully equipped protective structures

Well-designed and comprehensive protective engineering is key to successful river management. The Mississippi River’s channel improvement projects—covering a wide variety of types and involving an enormous number of structures—are among the most advanced in the history of global river management. These include: first, flood-control and storage structures; second, flood-discharge structures; and third, channel-maintenance works.

4. Dynamic and Comprehensive Survey and Monitoring of Natural Resources

A dynamic and comprehensive survey and monitoring of natural resources is the foundation for successful governance. It involves four key tasks: First, gaining a deep understanding of the Mississippi River’s ecosystem and its resource-related issues; second, monitoring changes in the river ecosystem’s resources; third, exploring alternative solutions to better manage the Mississippi River system; and fourth, providing appropriate information and management support for monitoring. The overarching goal is to offer information and decision-making support for the management and governance of the Mississippi River’s multi-purpose, large-scale river ecosystem.

First, we conduct geological hazard surveys and monitoring. On the one hand, by carrying out detailed geological mapping of the coastal areas of Louisiana, USA, and the lower Mississippi River floodplain, we identify permeable and impermeable sedimentary rocks as well as fault zones, thereby supporting coastal development planning and minimizing soil erosion and landslide hazards to the greatest extent possible. On the other hand, in geologically vulnerable areas along the Mississippi River, we deploy side-scan sonar and high-resolution seismic recordings to investigate underwater landslides and collapses, enabling early warning and preventive measures.

Second, water level and water quality monitoring. Regarding changes in water levels and riverbank evolution, we generate contour data by conducting water-depth measurements, collecting elevation data, interpolating and merging water-depth measurements with riverbed elevation data, and then constructing a three-dimensional digital model of the riverbed for flood monitoring and early warning purposes. As for water quality monitoring, the standardized monitoring objectives are to track the status and trends of selected parameters. The data obtained are partly collected in real time by automated field-monitoring software and partly derived from laboratory analyses.

Third is remote sensing monitoring of land cover. The coverage data can also be used to assess the impact of human activities on floodplains, as well as to monitor vegetation distribution, ecosystem changes, and land-use conditions within river basins.

Fourth, biological resource surveys and monitoring.

Fifth, the construction and provision of geographic information systems. We have established a data service system for the Mississippi River basin, providing geographic information data for environmental management program development as well as relevant data from other sources, and offering information services to the public. □

Affiliation: Development Research Center, China Geological Survey