The Southeast Asia region is located to the southeast of China and comprises 11 countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei, Singapore, and East Timor. Its population is approximately 550 million, and its area covers about 4.5 million square kilometers. This region is relatively rich in mineral resources—particularly copper, nickel, aluminum, titanium, potash, petroleum, and natural gas—and exhibits strong complementarity with China, thus attracting considerable attention from China’s mining industry.
　　 I. Mineral Resources
　　 Due to historical and economic factors, the level of geological exploration in Southeast Asia is generally low. However, based on currently available data, this region is rich in mineral resources, with major minerals including: oil, natural gas, coal, copper, gold, nickel, aluminum, tin, titanium, antimony, silver, potash, gypsum, barite, and phosphate, as well as iron, zinc, lead, chromium, manganese, cobalt, kaolin, and bentonite.
　　 1. Oil and gas resources
　　 The oil and gas resources in Southeast Asia are primarily concentrated in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Vietnam, with smaller reserves distributed among other countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines, and East Timor.
　　 Indonesia is a major global producer of oil and gas resources. The country has approximately 60 sedimentary basins of varying sizes, with onshore basins suitable for oil and gas exploration covering an area of 800,000 square kilometers and offshore basins spanning 1.5 million square kilometers. To date, more than 340 oil fields and 54 gas fields have been discovered, including five large oil fields that account for 57% of the country’s total oil reserves. In 2007, Indonesia’s oil reserves stood at 600 million tons, while its natural gas reserves reached 2,658.9 billion cubic meters. Oil deposits are primarily concentrated on islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, and are almost entirely found in Tertiary-age strata. Major oil fields include Minas, Duri, and Bangko in central Sumatra; Cinta and Rama fields off the southeastern coast of Sumatra; Bunyu, Handi, and Bakapai fields in eastern Kalimantan; and Arjuna and Arimbi fields in the waters off western Java. Most of Indonesia’s natural gas resources are located in the Aceh and Arun gas fields in North Sumatra Province, onshore and offshore gas fields in eastern Kalimantan, the Kangean offshore block in eastern Java, and several blocks in Papua. Indonesia’s total recoverable oil resources amount to 4.77 billion tons, while its total recoverable natural gas resources reach 5.4 trillion cubic meters.
　　 In 2007, Malaysia’s oil reserves stood at 548 million tons, and its natural gas reserves totaled 235.03 billion cubic meters. These reserves are primarily concentrated in three offshore oil basins: (1) the Malay Basin, covering an area of approximately 224,000 square kilometers; major oil fields in this basin include the Dulang Field and the Seligi Field. (2) the Sarawak Basin, with an area of 220,000 square kilometers; and (3) the Sabah Basin, covering an area of about 34,000 square kilometers and extending in a northeast direction.
　　 According to statistics from 2008, Vietnam’s proven remaining oil reserves stood at 82.2 million tons, while its proven remaining natural gas reserves totaled 192.556 billion cubic meters. These reserves are primarily concentrated in the southern offshore region, with smaller deposits also found in the Red River Basin in the north. The oil and gas fields in the southern offshore region are mainly located in the area between Vung Tau and Con Dao Island, with production occurring in the Cuu Long Basin, the Malay-Tho Chu Basin, and the Nam Con Son Basin. Vietnam’s most important oil field is the “White Tiger” field, with original recoverable reserves reaching 500 million barrels. Other significant fields include the “Big Bear” field (300–600 million barrels), the Rong field, the Ruby field, and the Rang Dong field.
　　 In the past two years, Thailand’s oil reserves have grown relatively rapidly. In 2007, the country’s proven remaining oil reserves stood at 39.73 million tons, an increase of 58.6% over the previous year. Natural gas reserves totaled 331.2 billion cubic meters, a decrease of 20.7% from the previous year. To date, more than 19 oil and gas fields have been discovered, primarily concentrated in six hydrocarbon-bearing regions: the Gulf of Thailand, the Andaman Sea, the Southern Plains, the Central Plains, the Korat Plateau, and the Northern Mountain Basins. Among these, the Gulf of Thailand basin is the most densely populated with such resources.
　　 Myanmar’s oil and gas resources are primarily concentrated in the central sedimentary basin between the Arakan Mountains and the Shan Plateau, as well as on the offshore continental shelf. To date, 19 onshore oil fields or oil-and-gas fields and 3 offshore gas fields have been discovered. Given the limited exploration work conducted so far on the offshore continental shelf, this region holds the greatest potential for Myanmar’s oil and gas development. In recent years, Myanmar has stepped up its efforts to explore for oil and gas on the continental shelf and has already made several significant discoveries.
　　 2. Copper
　　 These resources are primarily distributed in countries such as Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Laos, and Myanmar. Indonesia is a major global producer of copper resources, with officially reported reserves totaling 66.206 million tons. According to data from the United States Geological Survey, as of 2007, Indonesia’s copper reserves stood at 35 million tons, accounting for 7.1% of the world’s total and placing it third globally. Most copper deposits are located in the Ertsberg and Grasberg areas of Papua Province, with smaller deposits found in Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Java; the majority are porphyry-type deposits. Major mining sites include the Ertsberg and Grasberg deposits in Papua Province, the Batu Hijau deposit on Sumbawa Island—both rich in copper and gold—as well as several copper mines on North Sulawesi and Bangka Island.
　　 The Philippines boasts abundant copper mineral resources. In 1998, its copper reserves stood at 7 million tons, with a reserve base of 11 million tons. Other sources report that the country’s copper resources could reach as much as 40.2 million tons. The majority of the Philippines’ copper deposits are porphyry copper deposits, which are distributed throughout the country. The major copper ore deposits are located in Zambales Province and Benguet Province in the northern Luzon mountain region, as well as in the provinces of New Biscay, North Surigao, North Zamboanga, Davao Oriental, South Cotabato in the southern Mindanao region, and Cebu Province in the central part of the country. Geological exploration efforts indicate that the Philippines still has significant untapped copper deposits and prospective copper mining sites.
　　 Since the enactment of the new Mining Act in 1995, the Philippines has made several new discoveries in copper mining. For example, copper deposits such as HINOBAAN (with copper reserves of 1.806 million tons), Kingking, Maricalum (with copper reserves of 2 million tons), and Tampakan have been successively discovered. Among these, the Tampakan copper-gold deposit, discovered by Western Australia Mining Company in the southern part of Cotabato Province on Mindanao Island, is a world-class deposit. It is estimated to contain copper reserves of 10.442 million tons and gold reserves of 227 to 369 tons, with a total value of at least 10 to 20 billion U.S. dollars.
　　 3. Gold
　　 Southeast Asia boasts extensive gold mineral resources, with gold deposits found in most countries of the region. Among them, Indonesia has the highest concentration of gold deposits, followed by the Philippines. Indonesia is a major global producer of gold resources; according to official Indonesian reports, its proven gold reserves amount to 5,297 tons, with reserves totaling 3,156 tons—placing it at the top of all Asian countries. The types of gold deposits found in the region are predominantly shallow hydrothermal gold deposits associated with Tertiary volcanic rocks, as well as skarn-porphyry copper-gold deposits. Gold deposits are distributed across nearly all of the islands. The Grasberg copper-gold mine in Papua Province is Indonesia's largest gold mine and one of the largest gold mines in the world.
　　 4. Nickel
　　 The nickel ore resources in Southeast Asia are primarily concentrated in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar. Indonesia is also one of the world’s major nickel ore producers. As of 2007, its proven nickel reserves stood at 3.2 million tons, accounting for approximately 4.8% of the global total and ranking it eighth worldwide. The average grade of the ore ranges from 1.5% to 2.5%. Most of these deposits are lateritic nickel ores found in weathered crusts over basic and ultrabasic rock bodies, distributed across the eastern part of the archipelago. The mineralized zones can be traced from Central Sulawesi through Halmahera, Obi, Gebe, Gag, and Waigeo Islands, as well as the Bird's Head Peninsula and the Tanah Merah region in Papua. In the Philippines, nickel reserves in 2007 totaled 940,000 tons (in terms of metal content), with a reserve base of 5.2 million tons, placing the country tenth globally. The majority of Philippine nickel deposits (99%) are located in lateritic belts. Since most of these nickel deposits lie in shallow soil layers, they are easy to mine and relatively low-cost to extract. Regionally, the largest concentrations are found in Davao Oriental Province and Palawan Province, with ore reserves of 475.7 million tons (43.69% of the total) and 407.1 million tons (37.38% of the total), respectively. Other provinces with significant nickel resources include Northern Surigao and Zamboanga del Norte. Recently discovered Philnico nickel-cobalt deposits contain known nickel resources of 1.58 million tons and cobalt resources of 158,000 tons.
　　 5. Bauxite
　　 The deposits are mainly distributed in countries such as Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, and the Philippines. In Indonesia, the known reserves of bauxite amount to over 200 million tons, with proven reserves of 24 million tons. Of these reserves, 85% are located in West Kalimantan, while the remaining 15% are found on Bintan Island in the Riau Archipelago and the smaller islands surrounding it. This type of bauxite is lateritic bauxite, formed by the weathering of aluminum-bearing silicate rocks under humid and hot climatic conditions. The deposits are primarily concentrated in the Riau Archipelago, Bintan Island, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. Due to West Kalimantan’s remote geographic location and insufficient infrastructure, its bauxite resources have yet to be developed. Currently, only the bauxite deposits on Bintan Island and the surrounding islands have been exploited.
Bauxite is one of Vietnam’s advantageous mineral resources. According to data from Vietnamese geological agencies, the country’s total bauxite reserves amount to approximately 8 billion tons (USGS, Minerals Yearbook, 2005). These reserves are primarily concentrated in several provinces in central and southern Vietnam—Dak Lak, Dak Nong, Kon Tum, and Lam Dong—and also occur to some extent in northern regions. There are two main types of bauxite deposits: lateritic and sedimentary. Among these, the lateritic type is the most significant, occurring mainly in weathered basaltic rocks on the plateau of the Neogene-Early Quaternary period in southern Vietnam. This type covers an area exceeding 20,000 km², with weathering zones reaching depths of up to 60 meters. The average grade of the raw ore is 36–39% Al₂O₃, and the total reserves amount to 4.05 billion tons. Major bauxite deposits include Quang Son and Gia Nghia in Dak Nong Province (with reserves of about 2.7 billion tons), the Bao Loc deposit in Lam Dong Province (with reserves of approximately 140 million tons), and the Tan Se deposit in Lam Dong Province (with reserves of about 180 million tons). Sedimentary bauxite deposits are found in Permian limestone formations in northern provinces such as Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Lang Son. These deposits generally have higher grades (Al₂O₃ 39–65%), and their total estimated reserves are several hundred million tons. However, the overall quality of the ore is relatively poor, and the individual deposits are small in scale.
　　 6. Tin
　　 The deposits are mainly distributed in countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. Malaysia’s tin reserves amount to 1 million tons (data from 2007), accounting for 16.4% of the global total—second only to China, placing it second worldwide. Of the 11 states on the Malay Peninsula, nine have tin mines, with Perak and Selangor having the largest reserves. The ore types are predominantly placer deposits, primarily alluvial placers, such as the world-famous Kinta Valley tin mining district and the Kuala Lumpur tin mining area. The primary ore mineral is cassiterite, often accompanied by monazite, ilmenite, and xenotime. Most of these deposits occur along the contact zones between Indosinian granites and Silurian-Permian clastic rocks and limestones, where cassiterite-quartz veins are developed. Primary tin deposits play a secondary role; their genetic types include: (1) hydrothermal deposits, mostly cassiterite-quartz vein-type deposits, with ore occurring in fractures within argillaceous rock layers. The main ore mineral is cassiterite, accompanied by pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, topaz, stannite, sphalerite, quartz, and chromite. Some of these deposits exhibit intense quartz veining. A representative example is the Sungai Lembing tin deposit. (2) Contact-metasomatic (skarn) deposits, characterized by cassiterite development within skarn zones at the contact between granite bodies and carbonate rocks. Tin mineralization is concentrated at fracture intersections and junctions, as seen in ore bodies such as Mancung Satahong and Bukit Besi. (3) Pegmatite-type deposits, generally smaller in scale, found within various pegmatites. In addition to cassiterite, the main associated minerals include tourmaline, muscovite, topaz, fluorite, and beryl, as exemplified by the Bakri deposit in Johor.
　　 Indonesia is also a major global producer of tin resources. According to data from the U.S. Geological Survey, in 2007, Indonesia’s tin reserves were approximately 800,000 tons, accounting for 13.1% of the world’s total and ranking it third globally. These reserves are primarily located in the Riau Islands off the eastern coast of Sumatra, particularly on Bangka Island, Belitung Island, and Nias Island. This tin-bearing belt shares geological characteristics with the tin deposits in western Yunnan Province of China, as well as those found in Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia. The entire belt stretches over 2,500 kilometers in length, with the Indonesian portion of the belt spanning roughly 750 kilometers.
　　 Tin is one of Thailand’s most important mineral resources. In 2007, its reserves stood at 170,000 tons (with a reserve base of 200,000 tons), accounting for 2.8% of the world’s total reserves and ranking eighth globally. The primary tin deposits are concentrated in the southern region, including the provinces of Phang Nga, Phuket, Nakhon Si Thammarat, and Ranong. Small deposits are also found in the northern and central regions.
　　 7. Ilmenite
　　 The resource is primarily distributed in Vietnam, with smaller deposits found in Malaysia. Vietnam ranks as the world’s 10th largest country in terms of ilmenite reserves. As of 2007, its proven reserves stood at 160 tons, with a reserve base of 1,400 tons (TiO2). There are more than 30 mining sites, including two large deposits, 10 medium-sized deposits, and 11 small deposits. The deposits include primary ores, weathered residual deposits, and coastal sand deposits. Among these, coastal sand deposits are the most widely distributed and have the largest reserves, stretching nearly across the entire territory of Vietnam—from Mong Cai in the north, through Thanh Hoa, Vinh City, Hue, Quy Nhon, all the way to Vung Tau and Ha Tien. Both of the large-scale titanium deposits are coastal sand deposits: the Cam Hoa deposit near Vinh City and the Ky Khanh deposit near Quy Nhon. The primary ilmenite deposit is the Ca Chien deposit, located northwest of Thai Nguyen City, which is classified as a medium-sized deposit. The ore bodies are hosted within gabbro intrusions, with high-grade ore containing up to 30–40% ilmenite. After surface weathering, some residual sand deposits have also formed from the primary ore bodies.
　　 8. Iron
　　 Iron ore deposits are primarily concentrated in Vietnam, with smaller occurrences in Laos, Myanmar, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia. According to a report by the Vietnamese government, Vietnam has approximately 200 known iron ore deposits, 13 of which have reserves exceeding 1 million tons. The country's total iron ore reserves exceed 1.2 billion tons (USGS, Minerals Yearbook, 2005). The discovered iron ore deposits are mainly located in northern and central Vietnam, with an average grade of 50%. Among these, the Thach Ky iron ore deposit in Ha Tinh Province boasts the largest reserves, with confirmed reserves amounting to 544 million tons and an average iron content exceeding 61%. The deposit occurs within skarn rocks and is amenable to open-pit mining; development is currently being prepared. The second-largest iron ore deposit is the Quy Xuang mine in Hoang Lien Son Province, which is a weathering-leaching type deposit with proven reserves of 118 million tons and an average iron content of 56–57%. This deposit, too, is now entering the stage of open-pit mining for high-grade ore. The large-scale Quy Xa iron ore deposit in Lao Cai Province is of volcanic-sedimentary metamorphic origin, with reserves totaling 112 million tons.
　　 9. Antimony
　　 The primary concentration of antimony resources is in Thailand and Myanmar. Thailand is also one of the world’s richest countries in terms of antimony ore reserves. As of 2007, its reserves stood at 350,000 tons, accounting for 16.7% of the global total—placing it second only to China and making it the world’s third-largest reserve holder. Its proven reserves totaled 370,000 tons, representing 8.6% of the global total and ranking it third worldwide as well. Antimony ore resources are mainly concentrated in northern Thailand, including provinces such as Nan, Phrae, and Chiang Mai, as well as in the central province of Chonburi and the southern province of Surat Thani.
　　 10. Silver
　　 It is mainly distributed in Indonesia, with smaller populations found in the Philippines, Myanmar, and Laos. In 2005, Indonesia’s silver resources totaled 36,000 tons, with reserves amounting to 11,400 tons. The primary silver deposits are located in areas such as Ertsberg and Grasberg in Papua Province, as well as Cikotok in West Java.
　　 11. Other minerals
　　 Coal is primarily found in countries such as Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar; tungsten is mainly concentrated in Thailand and Myanmar; lead and zinc are predominantly located in Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand; chromite deposits are distributed in Vietnam, the Philippines, and Myanmar; manganese ore is mainly found in Indonesia, Myanmar, and Vietnam; cobalt is primarily mined in Indonesia and the Philippines; potash salts are mainly concentrated in Thailand and Laos; phosphate resources are largely concentrated in Vietnam; barite is distributed in Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar—Thailand’s barite reserves in 2007 were 9 million tons, ranking fifth in the world; gypsum is mainly found in Thailand; kaolin is primarily distributed in Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia; bentonite is mainly found in Myanmar, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
　　 II. Mining and the Economy
　　 In the Southeast Asian region, mining plays a crucial role in the economic development of many countries, including Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Indonesia is a major mining nation, ranking among the world’s top ten producers of gold, tin, copper, and nickel. Among these, its tin production ranks second globally, behind only China. Other key mineral products produced in Indonesia include oil, natural gas, coal, bauxite, chromium, iron, gypsum, diamonds, and salt. The mining sector has a significant impact on Indonesia’s economic development. In 2007, the value of mineral output accounted for 9.1% of the country’s GDP, contributing over 20% of government revenue (in 2006, this contribution reached as high as 35%).
　　 The mining industry plays a significant role in Malaysia’s economy. The direct contribution of the mining sector to Malaysia’s GDP was 27 billion ringgit (according to the 2007 Asia-Pacific Mining Conference report; 1 U.S. dollar was roughly equivalent to 3.5 ringgit), accounting for approximately 5.3% of the country’s gross domestic product. Of this total, 92.6% came from natural gas and petroleum. Other major minerals produced include coal, tin, gold, bauxite, rare-earth minerals, iron ore, ilmenite, silica sand, and kaolin (Table 1).
　　 Among mining enterprises in Malaysia, only the production of oil, natural gas, and industrial minerals is carried out on a relatively large scale; coal and ferrous and nonferrous metal mining are all conducted by small-scale mines. With the exception of companies engaged in the exploration and processing of oil and natural gas, all other mining enterprises are privately owned and operated. Oil and gas exploration and development activities are undertaken by Petronas—the national oil and gas company of Malaysia—as well as by risk-sharing consortia formed between Petronas and foreign companies.
　　 Following the Asian financial crisis, Malaysia’s mining sector experienced a slowdown in growth: in 1999, growth stood at 3.1%, but in 2000 it slowed down to just 0.5%. In 2001, the sector even recorded negative growth. The number of people employed in the mining industry also declined sharply. In 1997, the mining sector employed approximately 43,900 people, accounting for 0.5% of the country’s total labor force; by 2000, this figure had fallen to 28,200, representing only 0.3% of the national labor force. Starting in 2002, the situation in the mining sector began to improve. In 2002, 2003, and 2004, the mining sector’s GDP growth rates were 3.7%, 4.8%, and 4.1%, respectively. However, in 2005, due to a decline in crude oil production, the mining sector’s GDP growth rate fell to just 0.8%.
　　 Vietnam’s mining industry started relatively late, but in recent years, with the country’s economic growth, the mining sector has experienced significant development. Today, the mining industry occupies an important position in Vietnam’s economic life. In 2006, the value of mining output reached 1.44 billion U.S. dollars, accounting for approximately 5.41% of the country’s GDP. Currently, about 30 types of minerals are being mined in Vietnam. Crude oil and natural gas are Vietnam’s most important mineral products, followed by construction materials and coal. Other major mineral products include gold, chromite, ilmenite, tin, zinc, barite, and phosphate rock. Among these, most of the crude oil, chromite, and zinc concentrates are exported.
　　 Vietnam’s trade in mineral products plays an important role in the country’s overall trade, with crude oil being its primary export commodity. In 2007, crude oil exports totaled US$8.5 billion, accounting for 17.56% of the nation’s total exports. Coal ranked second, with exports amounting to US$1 billion, representing 2.06% of the country’s total exports. Other exported mineral products include tin, chromite, graphite, mica, and gemstones. Despite exporting large quantities of crude oil, Vietnam remains a net importer of mineral products, as it imports substantial amounts of refined petroleum products and steel products. The main imported mineral products are non-ferrous metals and fertilizers. Vietnam’s key trading partners in the mining sector are Japan, China, Hong Kong, and countries of the European Community.
The total number of people employed in Vietnam’s mining sector is 249,000, accounting for approximately 5% of the country’s total employment.
　　 The Philippine mining industry once played a significant role in the country’s economy. Between the 1960s and 1980s, the Philippines was one of the world’s largest producers of copper, chromium, gold, and nickel. At that time, mining exports accounted for half of the nation’s total export earnings and contributed between 6% and 10% to the country’s GDP. However, due to political instability, low mineral prices, labor issues, natural disasters, and legal restrictions on foreign ownership in Philippine mining companies, the mining sector began to decline. By the year 2000, the mining industry’s share of GDP had fallen to less than 1%. In recent years, however, the mining sector has experienced a substantial rebound. In 2001, the total value of mineral production was only 29 billion pesos; since then, mining output has steadily risen year after year. By 2005, the Philippines’ total mining output reached 50.2 billion pesos (at the 2005 exchange rate: 1 U.S. dollar = 55.24 pesos), representing a 73.1% increase over four years. Of this total, metal mining output amounted to 37.4 billion pesos, accounting for 74.5% of the overall mining value. After 2006, driven by a sharp rise in international mineral prices, the Philippines saw an even more dramatic increase in its mining output. In 2007, mining output surged to 101.5 billion pesos—more than doubling in just two years. The mining sector’s contribution to GDP rose from 0.6% in 2001 to 1.4% in 2007, marking a growth rate of 133.3%. Moreover, in 2007, the value of mineral exports reached 2.548 billion U.S. dollars, accounting for 5.2% of the country’s total exports—a significant increase from the 2% recorded six years earlier.
　　 Laos’s mining sector as a whole remains relatively underdeveloped. Due to economic and technological constraints, many mineral resources have not been effectively explored or developed. As late as 2002, the mining industry’s contribution to the country’s GDP was only 0.5%. In recent years, thanks to supportive government policies and substantial inflows of foreign investment, the mining sector has experienced relatively rapid growth—particularly in the development of minerals such as copper, zinc, gold, and silver. As a result, the mining sector’s contribution to GDP rose to 1.5% in 2004 (according to a report submitted by the Lao authorities to the International Monetary Fund). The actual figure may even be higher; one media outlet reported that the output value of gold mines alone reached as much as 2.4% of GDP.
　　 Thailand currently mines more than 40 types of minerals, including primarily: petroleum, natural gas, lignite, tin, tantalum, tungsten, antimony, iron ore, gold, manganese, silver, zinc, barite, gypsum, fluorite, kaolin, feldspar, limestone, perlite, salt, talc, pyrophyllite, and diatomaceous earth. In 2006, the five solid mineral products with the highest output values were coking coal, gold, gypsum, limestone, and zinc. Thailand ranks third in the world in feldspar production and sixth in the world in gypsum production.
　　 Since the beginning of the 20th century, Thailand’s mining output has generally shown a rapid growth trend. In 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005, its growth rates were 10.9%, 6.8%, 4.7%, and 9.5%, respectively, primarily driven by the steady increase in oil and gas production. In 2006, the value of mining output reached 1.1 billion U.S. dollars, with mineral exports amounting to 474 million U.S. dollars and metal mineral imports totaling 11.17 billion U.S. dollars. In 2005, the mining and quarrying sector contributed 2.29% to Thailand’s GDP, representing a slight increase from the 2.19% recorded in 2004. In the first quarter of 2006, this figure was 2.24%.
　　 Mining development in Myanmar has been slow. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a series of reform measures, bringing about a turning point for the mining sector. Currently, the main mineral products being mined include: petroleum, natural gas, copper, chromium, manganese, tin, zinc, lead, tungsten, gemstones, jade, barite, and clay (see Table 4). Among these, jade and rubies and sapphires hold an important global position. More than 95% of the world’s jade is produced in Myanmar, and particularly high-quality jade almost entirely originates from this country. In 2006, mineral exports totaled US$1.623 billion, accounting for approximately 36.6% of the nation’s total merchandise exports; among them, natural gas exports accounted for 92.4%. In fiscal year 2007/08, natural gas exports reached US$2.689 billion, representing 42% of the nation’s total export value.
　　 The mining sector in Cambodia accounts for only a small share of its economy. Although it grew by 16% in 2006, it still represented just 0.41% of GDP. The mining industry employs about 20,000 people, or 0.3% of the country’s total workforce. According to historical records from the 1960s and 1970s, Cambodia possessed reserves of gold, gemstones, bauxite, coal, iron, and other metallic and non-metallic minerals, yet these resources remained unexploited. Over the past decade or so, Cambodian authorities have approved several companies to explore and develop the country’s mineral resources and have signed memoranda of understanding with relevant foreign firms, enabling them to gather information on mineral deposits and laying the groundwork for future cooperation with investors. As of the end of 2006, the Cambodian Ministry of Industry had issued a total of 36 exploration and development licenses to both domestic and foreign enterprises for various mineral resources, and had also granted permits to seven companies to mine gemstones. To meet the demands of socio-economic development and the construction industry, the Cambodian Ministry of Industry has further authorized domestic and foreign enterprises to establish 176 sand and gravel quarries for building materials.
　　 Brunei is rich in oil and gas resources, and the development of these resources has made it one of the wealthiest countries in the Asia-Pacific region. In 2006, 90% of government tax revenue and 69% of the country’s GDP came from the oil and gas sector. The oil and gas sector employed 4,379 people, accounting for 4.1% of total private-sector employment. Meanwhile, the mining, quarrying, and manufacturing sectors employed 18,508 people, representing 17.3% of total private-sector employment.
East Timor is rich in oil and gas resources, which serve as the cornerstone of its economic development. In recent years, oil and gas revenues have grown rapidly: in the fiscal year 2004, oil and gas revenues totaled only 41 million U.S. dollars, but by 2005, they had surged to 265 million U.S. dollars—accounting for approximately 43.1% of the country’s GDP. To further expand oil and gas revenues, the East Timorese government established an Oil Fund in July 2005, which reached 1 billion U.S. dollars by the end of 2006. As of the third quarter of 2008, the East Timorese Oil Fund had accumulated a total of 3.738 billion U.S. dollars, representing a net increase of 535 million U.S. dollars compared to the previous quarter. By the end of 2008, the cumulative assets of the East Timorese Oil Fund were expected to surpass 4 billion U.S. dollars. The Oil Fund’s primary sources of revenue are two components: all tax revenues related to petroleum and dividends from oil revenues. The fund is managed by the Banking and Payments Authority of Timor-Leste (BPA), the preparatory body under the Central Bank of East Timor, and is primarily invested in U.S. Treasury bonds. Recently, the decline in international oil prices could directly impact East Timor’s oil revenues, while the global financial crisis might also affect the investment returns of the Oil Fund.
　　 III. Current Status of Major Mineral Resource Development
　　 1. Oil and gas
　　 Oil and gas exploration and development in Southeast Asia are primarily concentrated in Indonesia, Malaysia, as well as Vietnam, Thailand, Brunei, the Philippines, and East Timor.
　　 Since the beginning of the 21st century, Indonesia’s crude oil production has generally been on a downward trend. The primary reasons for this decline are natural depletion in some older oilfields and a lack of new investment in exploration and production activities in the oil and gas sector. However, in the past two years, thanks to increased development investments, crude oil production has begun to show a slight recovery. In 2007, crude oil production (including condensate) reached 381 million barrels, representing a 3.8% increase over the previous year. Central Sumatra is Indonesia’s largest oil-producing province, home to Duri and Minas—Indonesia’s two largest oilfields. Other major oilfields in Indonesia are located mainly off the southeastern coast of Sumatra, in the northwest of Java Island, and onshore and offshore in East Kalimantan.
　　 In 2007, Indonesia’s natural gas production totaled 95.02 billion cubic meters, a decrease of 7.1% from the previous year. Indonesia’s major natural gas fields include Aceh and Arun in North Sumatra Province, offshore gas fields in East Kalimantan, and the Badak gas field in East Kalimantan. The key operators are Indonesia ExxonMobil Petroleum Company, Roy M. Huffington Company, and the French oil giant Total.
　　 Oil is one of Malaysia's most important mineral resources. Its average daily crude oil production hovers around 700,000 barrels per day, with condensate accounting for 20% of that total. In the past two years, production has declined somewhat: in 2006, daily output was 700,000 barrels, a drop of 4.6% from the previous year, primarily due to the shutdown of several older oil fields. Natural gas is even more significant than oil in Malaysia; as crude oil production has declined, natural gas production has steadily risen. In 2005, natural gas production reached 74.351 million tons, representing a 10.1% increase over the previous year.
　　 In recent years, Vietnam’s crude oil production has remained relatively stable, hovering between 120 million and 140 million barrels. Thailand has been one of the fastest-growing crude oil producers in the region in recent years; its output was only 41.3 million barrels in 2001, but had already reached 77.38 million barrels by 2007 and is expected to hit 83.59 million barrels in 2008.
　　 2. Gold
　　 Most countries in Southeast Asia have gold mines, though production is concentrated primarily in Indonesia and the Philippines. Indonesia is the world’s seventh-largest gold-producing country, with a mine output of 117.96 tons in 2007. The main gold mines are located in Papua Province—specifically the Grasberg and Ertsberg mines—as well as the Balikpapan mine in Central Kalimantan Province, the Sumbawa Island mine in West Nusa Tenggara Province, the Halmahera Island mine in Maluku Province, and the Bogor mine in West Java Province. The Philippines ranks as the region’s second-largest producer, with an output of 38.8 tons in 2007. Most other countries in the region also engage in gold mining.
　　 3. Copper
　　 The countries in this region that produce copper include Indonesia, the Philippines, Laos, Myanmar, and others. Indonesia is the world’s fourth-largest copper producer. In 2007, its mine output was 805,800 tons, a slight decrease from the previous year. This accounted for 5.3% of the global total. The major copper mines are Grasberg and Ertsberg, located in Papua Province, as well as Sumbawa Island in West Nusa Tenggara Province.
　　 In recent years, Laos has seen relatively rapid growth in copper production. The majority of the country’s copper is mined at the Xaybouly mine (including the Khanong open-pit mine) located in the Vilabouly district of Savannakhet Province. The mine is operated by Lane Xang Minerals Co., Ltd., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Australia’s Oxiana. The company also runs a smelter in the same region. Production at the mine began in 2005, with an output of 30,480 tons that year. In 2006, output doubled to 60,803 tons. The company plans to increase production to 120,000 tons by 2009.
　　 In March 2006, Pan Australian Resources Ltd. completed the feasibility study for the Phou Khem copper-gold mine development project located in northern Laos. The company announced that it had approved the development plan for the Phou Khem copper-gold mine. The project is estimated to require an investment of US$230 million and is scheduled to begin production in mid-2008. According to the company, the mine is expected to produce 12 million tons of copper ore annually over a lifespan of 12 years, yielding 207,000 tons of copper concentrate per year (containing 25% copper, 7 grams of gold per ton, and 65 grams of silver per ton). This translates into annual mine production of 52,000 tons of copper, 1,450 kilograms of gold, and 13,500 kilograms of silver. Based on prices prevailing at the beginning of 2006, the company estimates that the mine will generate annual revenues exceeding US$100 million. The estimated cash cost of copper from this mine is US$0.74 per pound. According to the project’s development plan, the mining and processing infrastructure construction will take 20 months and is scheduled to be completed by the end of 2007. The mine’s copper concentrate will be exported to China, Japan, South Korea, and Thailand. As of April 2006, the mine’s measured and indicated ore resources totaled 192 million tons, with a grade of 0.62% copper and 0.24 grams of gold per ton. The mine’s proven and probable reserves amount to 144 million tons, including 67 million tons of proven reserves and 77 million tons of probable reserves, with grades of 0.56% copper and 0.25 grams of gold per ton.
　　 4. Nickel
　　 Nickel deposits in Southeast Asia are primarily found in Indonesia and the Philippines. In 2007, Indonesia’s mine production of nickel was approximately 229,000 tons, representing a 45.8% increase over the previous year. The major producers are PT Antam (in which the government holds a 65% stake) and PT International Nickel Indonesia Tbk (with Canada’s Inco Ltd. as the largest shareholder). The key mining sites include the Pomalaa and Soroako nickel mines located in southern Sulawesi, as well as the Tanjung Buli and Mornopo mines in North Maluku Province. Although the Philippines’ nickel production is significantly lower than Indonesia’s, it has grown rapidly in recent years. In 2006, the country’s mine production reached 58,879 tons, more than doubling the previous year’s output. The majority of Philippine nickel comes from four medium-sized mines—Taganito, Rio Tuba, Cagdianao, and South Dinagat—among which the Taganito nickel project operated by Taganito Mining Company is the largest, accounting for about 45% of the nation’s total production. Currently, several large-scale nickel mining projects are under construction in the Philippines, and production is expected to reach 100,000 tons within a few years. Myanmar also has a major nickel mine currently under development, with nickel mine production projected to reach 22,000 tons by 2011.
　　 5. Bauxite
　　 Bauxite in this region is primarily produced in Indonesia, with a small amount also coming from Malaysia. Indonesia is the world’s 13th-largest bauxite producer; in 2007, its bauxite output reached 1.251 million tons, a decrease of 16.7% from the previous year. The main mining areas are located on Bintan Island and surrounding islands in Riau Province. The leading operator is PT Antam, in which the government holds a 65% stake. In Malaysia, bauxite production is concentrated in Johor State. There are two active bauxite mines in the Bungai Rengit area of Johor, and their output has grown significantly over the past two years—from just over 2,000 tons in 2004 to 157,000 tons in 2007.
　　 6. Tin
　　 The primary producing countries include Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, and others. Indonesia is the world’s second-largest producer of tin ore; in 2007, its mine production reached 66,000 tons, a decrease of 18.5% from the previous year. The main production area is Bangka Island. PT Tambang Timah Tbk (in which the Indonesian government holds a 65% stake) is the country’s largest tin ore producer, accounting for more than 80% of the nation’s total output. In 2008, its planned production was between 55,000 and 60,000 tons, roughly flat compared to 2007. Another major producer is PT Koba Tin (owned 75% by a Malaysian smelting company), which plans to produce 15,000 tons in 2008. In addition to mining operations, both of these companies also operate their own smelters, with a significant portion of their raw materials sourced from small-scale tin mines.
　　 Tin ore is an important mineral resource in Malaysia, and the country once held a significant position in global tin production. In recent years, although international tin prices have continued to rise, Malaysia’s high-quality tin ore reserves have drastically diminished and their grade has declined following more than 100 years of mining activities, leading to a year-on-year drop in tin production. In 2007, tin mine output stood at 2,263 tons—just one-tenth of what it was 17 years earlier. Currently, there are roughly over 30 tin mines still in operation, primarily concentrated on the Malay Peninsula.
　　 In 2007, Malaysia’s refined tin production totaled 25,263 tons, a slight decrease from the previous year. The Malaysian Smelting Corporation (MSC) is Malaysia’s sole producer of refined tin. Domestic consumption of refined tin in Malaysia accounts for only a small portion; most of the output is exported, primarily to Singapore, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.
　　 7. Ilmenite is primarily produced in Vietnam and Malaysia, which rank fifth and tenth, respectively, among the world’s largest ilmenite-producing countries.